Jump to content

Curry

Checked
Page protected with pending changes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Curry (disambiguation).

Lamb Madras curry

Curry is an international dish with a sauce or gravy seasoned with spices, mainly derived from the interchange of Indian cuisine with European taste in food, starting with the Portuguese and followed by the Dutch and British. Many dishes that would be described as curries in English are found in the native cuisines of countries in Southeast Asia and East Asia.

A first step in the creation of curry was the arrival in India of spicy hot chili peppers, along with other ingredients such as tomatoes and potatoes, part of the Columbian exchange of plants between the Old World and the New World. During the British Raj, Anglo-Indian cuisine developed, leading to Hannah Glasse's 18th century recipe for "currey the India way" in England. Curry was then spread in the 19th century by indentured Indian sugar workers to the Caribbean, and by British traders to Japan. Further exchanges around the world made curry a fully international dish.

Many types of curry exist in different countries. In Southeast Asia, curry often contains a spice paste and coconut milk. In India, the spices are fried in oil or ghee to create a paste; this may be combined with a water-based broth, or sometimes with milk or coconut milk. In China and Korea, curries are based on a commercial curry powder. Curry restaurants outside their native countries often adapt their cuisine to suit local tastes; for instance, Thai restaurants in the West sell red, yellow, and green curries with chili peppers of those colours, often combined with additional spices of the same colours. In Britain, curry has become the national dish, with some types adopted from India, others modified or wholly invented, as with chicken tikka masala, created by British Bangladeshi restaurants in the 20th century.

Etymology

[edit]
See also: Kadhi

The word 'curry' does not occur in any Indian language. Various words with similar sounds, like khari and caril, mean "sauce" in modern usage, but probably meant both a specific blend of spices, and a dish using that blend, when the Portuguese arrived in Goa. The scholar of food culture Lizzie Collingham suggests that the Portuguese heard and adopted the word, resulting eventually in its modern meaning of a dish, often spiced, in a sauce or gravy.[1] Collingham writes that:[2]

No Indian, however, would have referred to his or her food as a curry. The idea of a curry is, in fact, a concept that the Europeans imposed on India's food culture. Indians referred to their different dishes by specific names... But the British lumped all these together under the heading of curry.[2]

Hannah Glasse's recipe for "currey the India way", first published in her 1747 book The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy. It is the first known use of the word in English. (The recipe uses the long s, "ſ").

'Curry' is "ultimately derived"[3] from some combination of Dravidian words of south Indian languages.[3] One of those words is the Tamil kaṟi (கறி) meaning 'sauce' or 'relish for rice'.[3][4][5] Other Dravidian languages, namely Malayalam, Kannada and Kodava, have similar words.[6] Kaṟi is described in a mid-17th century Portuguese cookbook by members of the British East India Company,[7] who were trading with Tamil merchants along the Coromandel Coast of southeast India, becoming known as a "spice blend ... called kari podi or curry powder".[8] The first appearance in its anglicised form (spelt currey) was in Hannah Glasse's 1747 book The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy.[3][7]

The term "curry" is not derived from the name of the curry tree, although some curries do include curry leaves among many other spices.[9][10] It is not related, either, to the word cury in The Forme of Cury,[7] a 1390s English cookbook;[11] that term comes from the Middle French word cuire, meaning 'to cook'.[3]

Cultural exchanges

[edit]

Ancient spice trade in Asia

[edit]

Austronesian merchants in South East Asia traded spices along marine trade routes between South Asia (primarily the ports on the south eastern coast of India and Sri Lanka) and East Asia as far back at 5000 BCE.[12][13] Archaeological evidence dating to 2600 BCE from Mohenjo-daro suggests the use of mortar and pestle to pound spices including mustard, fennel, cumin, and tamarind pods with which they flavoured food.[14] Black pepper is native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia and has been known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE.[15] The three basic ingredients of the spicy stew were ginger, garlic, and turmeric. Using starch grain analysis, archaeologists identified the residue of these spices in both skeletons and pottery shards from excavations in India, finding that turmeric and ginger were present.[16][17] Sauces in India before Columbus could contain black pepper or long pepper to provide a little heat, but not chili, so they were not spicy hot by modern standards.[18]

Early modern trade

[edit]
Origin and spread of curry around the world. Mild spices were traded between India and East Asia from 5000 BCE.[12] The Columbian Exchange brought chili peppers to India.[19] Anglo-Indian food came to Britain in the 17th century.[18] The word "curry" was first recorded in print in Hannah Glasse's 1747 English cookery book.[3] In the 19th century, curry spread to the Caribbean[20] and to Japan,[21] and from there to Chinese people, starting in Singapore.[22] Further migration and globalisation (not shown) made curry a fully international dish.[23]

The establishment of the Mughal Empire, in the early 16th century, influenced some curries, especially in the north. Another influence was the establishment of the Portuguese trading centre in Goa in 1510, resulting in the introduction of chili peppers, tomatoes and potatoes to India from the Americas, as a byproduct of the Columbian Exchange.[19] In 1598, an English translation of a Dutch book about travel in the East Indies mentioned a "somewhat sour" broth called Carriel, eaten with rice.[23] The later Dutch word karie was used in the Dutch East Indies from the 19th century; many Indians had by then migrated to Southeast Asia.[23]

British influence

[edit]
Further information: Anglo-Indian cuisine
Anglo-Indian cooks created what they called curry by selecting regional ingredients from all over British India using them in Indian dishes from other regions. Lizzie Collingham describes their taste as "eclectic", "pan-Indian", "lacking sophistication", embodying a "passion for garnishes", and forming a "coherent repertoire"; but it was eaten only by the British. Among their creations were kedgeree, and Madras curry, which were served with chutneys, pickles, Bombay duck, and poppadoms.[24]

Curry was introduced to English cuisine from Anglo-Indian cooking in the 17th century, as spicy sauces were added to plain boiled and cooked meats.[2] That cuisine was created in the British Raj when British wives or memsahibs instructed Indian cooks on the food they wanted, transforming many dishes in the process.[25] Further, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when there were few British women in India, British men often lived with Indian mistresses, acquiring the local customs, language, and food.[26] Curry was first served in coffee houses in Britain from 1809.[27]

Indian cooks in the 19th century prepared curries for their British masters simplified and adjusted to Anglo-Indian taste. For instance, a quarama from Lucknow contained (among other ingredients) ghee, yoghurt, cream, crushed almonds, cloves, cardamom, and saffron; whereas an 1869 Anglo-Indian quorema or korma, "different in substance as well as name",[28] had no cream, almonds, or saffron, but it added the then-standard British curry spices, namely coriander, ginger, and black peppercorns.[28][29] Curry, initially understood as "an unfamiliar set of Indian stews and ragouts",[30] had become "a dish in its own right, created for the British in India".[30] Collingham describes the resulting Anglo-Indian cuisine as "eclectic", "pan-Indian", "lacking sophistication", embodying a "passion for garnishes", and forming a "coherent repertoire"; but it was eaten only by the British.[24]

Elsewhere in the 19th century, curry was carried to the Caribbean by Indian indentured workers in the British sugar industry.[20][23]

Globalisation

[edit]

Since the mid-20th century, curries of many national styles have become popular far from their origins, and increasingly become part of international fusion cuisine.[20] Alan Davidson writes that curry's worldwide extension is a result of the Indian diaspora and globalisation, starting within the British Empire, and followed by economic migrants who brought Indian cuisine to many countries.[23] In 1886, 咖喱 (Gālí) (Chinese pronunciation of "curry") appeared among the Chinese in Singapore.[22] Malay Chinese people then most likely brought curry to China.[23]

In India, spices are always freshly prepared for use in sauces.[31] Derived from such mixtures (but not containing curry leaves[32]), curry powder is a ready-prepared spice blend first sold by Indian merchants to European colonial traders. This was commercially available from the late 18th century,[33][34] with brands such as Crosse & Blackwell and Sharwood's persisting to the present.[35] British traders introduced the powder to Meiji era Japan, in the mid-19th century, where it became known as Japanese curry.[21]

Types

[edit]

There are many varieties of curry. The choice of spices for each dish in traditional cuisine depends on regional cultural traditions and personal preferences.[36] Such dishes have names such as dopiaza and rogan josh that refer to their ingredients, spicing, and cooking methods.[2] Outside the Indian subcontinent, a curry is a dish from Southeast Asia which uses coconut milk and spice pastes, and is commonly eaten over rice.[37] Curries may contain fish, meat, poultry, or shellfish, either alone or in combination with vegetables. Others are vegetarian. A masala mixture is a combination of dried or dry-roasted spices commonly homemade for some curries.[36]

Dry curries are cooked using small amounts of liquid, which is allowed to evaporate, leaving the other ingredients coated with the spice mixture. Wet curries contain significant amounts of sauce or gravy based on broth, coconut cream or coconut milk, dairy cream or yogurt, or legume purée, sautéed crushed onion, or tomato purée.[36] Curry powder, a commercially prepared mixture of spices marketed in the West, was first exported to Britain in the 18th century when Indian merchants sold a concoction of spices, similar to garam masala, to the British East India Company returning to Britain.[36]

Ways curries can vary[38][36]
Type of variation From To
Mild ↔ Hot   Korma (aromatic spices[a]) Madras (chili)
Watery ↔ Creamy Rogan josh (broth) Korma (yoghurt or cream)
Dry ↔ Wet Tikka (skewered meat, spices) Tikka masala (tomato, cream)
 Sour ↔ Sweet Dopiaza (onion, lemon) Pasanda (almonds, sugar)
 Stir-fry ↔ Simmer Balti (oil, onion, potato) Dhansak (lentils, spices, tomato)

By region

[edit]

United Kingdom

[edit]
Main article: Curry in the United Kingdom
Chicken tikka masala with rice and naan bread

Curry is very popular in the United Kingdom, with a curry house in nearly every town.[39][40] Such is its popularity that it has frequently been called its "adopted national dish".[41] It was estimated that in 2016 there were 12,000 curry houses, employing 100,000 people and with annual combined sales of approximately £4.2 billion.[42] The food offered is cooked to British taste, but with increasing demand for authentic Indian styles.[43] In 2001, chicken tikka masala was described by the British foreign secretary Robin Cook as "a true British national dish, not only because it is the most popular, but because it is a perfect illustration of the way Britain absorbs and adapts external influences."[44] Its origin is not certain, but many sources attribute it to British Asians; some cite Glasgow as the city of origin.[45][46][47] It may derive from butter chicken, popular in the north of India.[48]

Curries in Britain are derived partly from India and partly from invention in local Indian restaurants. They vary from mildly-spiced to extremely hot, with names that are to an extent standardised across the country, but are often unknown in India.[38]

Range of strengths of British curries[38]
Strength Example Place of origin Date of origin Description
Mild Korma Mughal court, North India 16th century Mild, creamy; may have almond, coconut, or fruit
Medium Madras British Bangladeshi restaurants 1970s Red, spicy with chili powder
Hot Vindaloo British Bangladeshi restaurants[b] 1970s Very spicy with chili peppers and potatoes[c]
Extreme Phall British Bangladeshi, Birmingham 20th century High-strength chili pepper e.g. scotch bonnet, habanero

South Asia

[edit]
Further information: Indian cuisine
Traditional karahi (left) and handi (right) serving dishes

Many Indian dishes are spicy. The spices chosen for a dish are freshly ground and then fried in hot oil or ghee to create a paste.[49] The content of the dish and style of preparation vary by region.[50] The sauces are made with spices including black pepper, cardamom, chili peppers, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, cumin, fennel seed, mustard seed, and turmeric.[50] As many as 15 spices may be used for a meat curry.[50] The spices are sometimes fried whole, sometimes roasted, sometimes ground and mixed into a paste.[50] The sauces are eaten with steamed rice or idli rice cakes in south India,[50] and breads such as chapatis, roti, and naan in the north.[51] The popular rogan josh, for example, from Kashmiri cuisine, is a wet dish of lamb with a red gravy coloured by Kashmiri chillies and an extract of the red flowers of the cockscomb plant (mawal).[52] Rice and curry is the staple dish of Sri Lanka.[53]

East Asia

[edit]

Japanese curry is usually eaten as karē raisu – curry, rice, and often pickled vegetables, served on the same plate and eaten with a spoon, a common lunchtime canteen dish. It is less spicy and seasoned than Indian and Southeast Asian curries, being more of a thick stew than a curry. British people brought curry from the Indian colony back to Britain[54] and introduced it to Japan during the Meiji period (1868 to 1912), after Japan ended its policy of national self-isolation (sakoku), and curry in Japan was categorised as a Western dish.[55] Its spread across the country is attributed to its use in the Japanese Army and Navy which adopted it extensively as convenient field and naval canteen cooking, allowing even conscripts from the remotest countryside to experience the dish. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force traditionally have curry every Friday for lunch and many ships have their own recipes.[56] The standard Japanese curry contains onions, carrots, potatoes, and sometimes celery, and a meat that is cooked in a large pot. Sometimes grated apples or honey are added for additional sweetness and other vegetables are sometimes used instead.[57]

Curry spread to other regions of Asia. Curry powder is added to some dishes in the southern part of China. The curry powder sold in Chinese grocery stores is similar to Madras curry powder, but with the addition of star anise and cinnamon.[58] The former Portuguese colony of Macau has its own culinary traditions and curry dishes, including Galinha à portuguesa ("Portuguese-style chicken") and curry crab. Portuguese sauce is a sauce flavoured with curry and thickened with coconut milk.[59]

Curry was popularized in Korean cuisine when Ottogi entered the Korean food industry with an imported curry powder in 1969.[60][61] Korean curry powder contains spices including cardamom, chili, cinnamon, and turmeric.[62] Curry tteokbokki is made of tteok (rice cakes), eomuk (fish cakes), eggs, vegetables, and gochujang, fermented red chili paste. As in India, chilis were brought to Korea by European traders. Spicy chili sauce then replaced the soy sauce formerly used in tteokbokki.[63]

Southeast Asia

[edit]

In Burmese cuisine, curries are broadly called hin. Burmese curries contains meat simmered in a curry paste containing onion, garlic, shrimp paste, tomato, and turmeric. Burmese curries are often mild, without chili, and somewhat oily.[64][65]

Thai curries are called kaeng, and usually consist of meat, fish or vegetables in a sauce based on a paste made from chilies, onions or shallots, garlic, and shrimp paste.[66] A few stir-fried Thai dishes use phong kari, an Indian style curry powder.[67] In the West, Thai curries are often colour-coded green, yellow, and red, with green usually the mildest, red the hottest. Green curry is flavoured with green chili, coriander, kaffir lime, and basil; yellow, with yellow chili and turmeric; and red, with red chili.[68]

Malaysian Indian cuisine may have initially incorporated curries via the region's Indian population,[69] but it has become a staple among the Malay and Chinese populations there. Malaysian curries have many varieties, but are often flavoured with cumin, cinnamon, turmeric, coconut milk, shallots, chili peppers, and garlic.[70]

Indian Indonesian cuisine consists of adaptations of authentic dishes from India, as well as original creations inspired by the diverse food culture of Indonesia. Curry in Indonesian is kari and in Javanese, kare. In Indonesian cuisine especially in Bandung, there is a dish called lontong kari, a combined of lontong and beef yellow curry soup.[71] In Javanese cuisine, kare rajungan, blue swimmer crab curry has become a delicacy of Tuban Regency, East Java.[72] Rendang, the national dish of Indonesia, originally from Minang, is drier and contains mostly meat and more coconut milk than a conventional Malaysian curry; it was mentioned in Malay literature in the 1550s by Hikayat Amir Hamzah.[73]

In Vietnamese cuisine, influenced by both Thai and Indian cooking, curry is known as cà ri. It is made with coconut milk, Madras curry powder with plenty of turmeric, and a variety of fresh ingredients such as coriander, lemongrass, and ginger.[74]

In the Philippines, two kinds of curry traditions are seen corresponding with the cultural divide between the Hispanicised north and Indianised/Islamised south. In the northern areas, a linear range of new curry recipes could be seen. The most common is a variant of the native ginataang manok (chicken cooked in coconut milk) dish with the addition of curry powder, known as the "Filipino chicken curry". This is the usual curry dish that northern Filipinos are familiar with. Similarly, other northern Filipino dishes that can be considered "curries" are usually ginataan (cooked with coconut milk) variants of other native meat or seafood dishes such as adobo, kaldereta, and mechado, that simply add curry powder or non-native Indian spices.[75]

South Africa

[edit]
Bunny chow, South Africa

Curry spread to South Africa with the migration of people from the Indian subcontinent to the region in the colonial era. African curries, Cape Malay curries and Natal curries include the traditional Natal curry, the Durban curry, Bunny chow, and roti rolls. South African curries appear to have been created in both KwaZulu-Natal and the Western Cape, while others developed across the country over the late 20th and early 21st centuries to include ekasi, coloured, and Afrikaner varieties.[76] Durban has the largest population of Indians outside of India in the world.[77] Bunny chow or a "set", a South African standard, consists of either lamb, chicken or bean curry poured into a tunnelled-out loaf of bread to be eaten with one's fingers by dipping pieces of the bread into it.[76][77] 'Bunny chow' means 'Indian food', from Banian, an Indian. The method of serving the curry was created because apartheid forbade black people from eating in Indian restaurants; the loaves could speedily be taken away and eaten in the street.[78]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Korma can be made with flavourings such as cloves, ginger, cardamom, cumin, coriander, turmeric, bay, onion and garlic.
  2. ^ The name 'Vindaloo' is from Portuguese vinha d'alhos (with wine [vinegar] and garlic), but the British version is quite different.[38]
  3. ^ The addition of potatoes may be from confusion of 'Vindaloo' with Hindi आलू āloo, potato.[38]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Twilley, Nicola; Graber, Cynthia (20 April 2019). "The Word Curry Came From a Colonial Misunderstanding". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d Collingham 2006, p. 115.
  3. ^ a b c d e f "Curry". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2018. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 8 October 2018.
  4. ^ "curry, n.²", Oxford English Dictionary (3 ed.), Oxford University Press, 6 February 2024, doi:10.1093/oed/9671826565, retrieved 31 March 2024
  5. ^ "What we know as "curry" has a long and curious history". The Takeout. 28 February 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  6. ^ "kari – A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary". Archived from the original on 23 June 2020.
  7. ^ a b c Taylor, Anna-Louise (11 October 2013). "Curry: Where did it come from?". BBC Food. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
  8. ^ Sahni, Julie (1980). Classic Indian Cooking. New York: William Morrow. pp. 39–40.
  9. ^ "Fresh Curry Leaves Add a Touch of India". NPR. 28 September 2011. Archived from the original on 11 April 2018. Retrieved 6 April 2018.
  10. ^ Raghavan, S. (2007). Handbook of Spices, Seasonings and Flavourings. CRC Press. p. 302. ISBN 978-0-8493-2842-8.
  11. ^ "Thys fourme of cury ys compyled of þe mayster cokes of kyng Richard þe secund ... by assent of Maysters of physik and of phylosophye". Things sweet to taste: selections from the Forme of Cury. 1996 ISBN 0-86373-134-1
  12. ^ a b Manguin, Pierre-Yves (2016). "Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships". In Campbell, Gwyn (ed.). Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 51–76. ISBN 9783319338224. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 26 March 2023.
  13. ^ Solheim, Wilhelm G. (1996). "The Nusantao and north-south dispersals". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 15: 101–109.
  14. ^ Iyer, Raghavan (2008). 660 Curries. New York: Workman Publishing. pp. 2–3. ISBN 9780761137870.
  15. ^ Davidson 2014, "Pepper", pp. 612–613
  16. ^ "People Have Been Eating Curry for 4,500 Years". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
  17. ^ Lawler, Andrew (29 January 2013). "Where Did Curry Come From?". Slate. Archived from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  18. ^ a b Twilley, Nicola; Graber, Nicola (9 April 2019). "Transcript: The Curry Chronicles". Gastropod. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
  19. ^ a b Batsha, Nishant (25 June 2020). "Curry Before Columbus". Contingent. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
  20. ^ a b c Mishan, Ligaya (10 November 2017). "Asian-American Cuisine's Rise, and Triumph". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 March 2023. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
  21. ^ a b Itoh, Makiko (26 August 2011). "Curry — it's more 'Japanese' than you think". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 8 January 2018. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  22. ^ a b Lim, Hiong Seng (1886). "Provisions, Fish, Vegetable and Fruit". Handbook of the Swatow Vernacular. Singapore: Koh Yew Hean Press. p. 95.
  23. ^ a b c d e f Davidson 2014, "Curry", p. 240
  24. ^ a b Collingham 2006, pp. 118–125, 140.
  25. ^ Davidson 2014, "Anglo-Indian" pp. 21–22
  26. ^ Collingham 2006, pp. 110–111.
  27. ^ "How Britain got the hots for curry". BBC. 26 November 2009. Archived from the original on 28 January 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  28. ^ a b Collingham 2006, pp. 116–117.
  29. ^ Thirty-Five Years' Resident (1869). "Kurma or Quorema Curry". The Indian Cookery Book. Calcutta: Wyman & Co. p. 22. This, without exception, is one of the richest of Hindoostanee curries, but it is quite unsuited to European taste, if made according to the original recipe, of which the following is a [Europeanised] copy:
  30. ^ a b Collingham 2006, p. 118.
  31. ^ Davidson 2014, "Curry Powder" p. 241
  32. ^ Davidson 2014, "Curry leaf" p. 240
  33. ^ "First British advert for curry powder". bl.uk. Archived from the original on 23 August 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  34. ^ Nupur Chaudhuri; Margaret Strobel (1992). Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance. Indiana University Press. pp. 240–. ISBN 0-253-20705-3. Archived from the original on 13 April 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2020.
  35. ^ "TV review: Inside the Factory lifts the lid on how our curries are made". The Independent. 15 August 2018. Archived from the original on 17 October 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  36. ^ a b c d e "Curry". Encyclopædia Britannica. 31 May 2024. Retrieved 25 July 2024.
  37. ^ Van Esterik, Penny (2008). Food Culture in Southeast Asia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 58–59. ISBN 9780313344206.
  38. ^ a b c d e Dillon, Sheila (2024). "From balti to bhuna: the ultimate guide to curry". BBC Radio 4. Retrieved 7 October 2024.
  39. ^ Jahangir, Rumeana (26 November 2009). "How Britain got the hots for curry". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 August 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
  40. ^ "National Curry Week: Why Britain loves curry". Fleet Street Communications. 13 October 2017. Archived from the original on 10 January 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
  41. ^ Spinks, Rosie (8 July 2005). "Curry on cooking: how long will the UK's adopted national dish survive?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
  42. ^ Moore, Malcolm (8 January 2016). "The great British curry crisis". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 14 October 2018. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
  43. ^ de Freytas-Tamura, Kimiko (4 November 2015). "Britons Perturbed by a Troubling Shortage of Curry Chefs". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 November 2015. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
  44. ^ "Robin Cook's chicken tikka masala speech: Extracts from a speech by the foreign secretary to the Social Market Foundation in London". The Guardian. 19 April 2001.
  45. ^ Dutt, Vijay (21 October 2007). "60 years of Chicken Tikka Masala". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
  46. ^ Ghosh, Bobby (19 January 2023). "How I Learned to Stop Hating and Respect Chicken Tikka Masala". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
  47. ^ Taylor, Emma. "Most people have no clue chicken tikka masala isn't an Indian dish, according to a top Indian chef". Insider. Retrieved 13 December 2021.
  48. ^ Thaker, Aruna; Barton, Arlene (2012). Multicultural Handbook of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 74. ISBN 9781405173582.
  49. ^ "What is a Bhuna?". Seasoned Pioneers. Retrieved 7 October 2024.
  50. ^ a b c d e Jaffrey, Madhur (1982). Madhur Jaffrey's Indian Cookery. BBC. pp. 7–10. ISBN 978-0-563-16491-3.
  51. ^ Gopalakrishnan, Srividhya. "The Indian Bread Types You Need to Know". Taste of Home. Retrieved 8 October 2024.
  52. ^ "Rogan Josh". In Khan Mohammed Sharief Waza, Khan Mohammed Shafi Waza, and Khan Mohammed Rafiq Waza (2007). Wazwaan: Traditional Kashmiri Cuisine. New Delhi: Roli & Janssen. p. 34.
  53. ^ "National Dish of Sri Lanka Rice and Curry". National Dishes of the World. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
  54. ^ S&B Company. "History of Japanese curry". Archived from the original on 11 April 2013. Retrieved 28 February 2013.
  55. ^ Booth, Michael (2017). The Meaning of Rice: And Other Tales from the Belly of Japan. Random House. p. 278. ISBN 9781473545816. Archived from the original on 19 February 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2020.
  56. ^ Itoh, Makiko (26 August 2011). "Curry – it's more 'Japanese' than you think". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 8 January 2018. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
  57. ^ "The Curry Rice Research". Archived 10 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine (in Japanese)
  58. ^ Sen, Colleen Taylor (15 November 2009). Curry: A Global History. Reaktion Books. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-86189-704-6. Archived from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
  59. ^ Levitt, Alice (28 December 2016). "Our Latest Obsession: Portuguese Chicken at Wing Kee Restaurant". Houstonia. Archived from the original on 7 March 2018. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
  60. ^ "[Best Brand] Ottogi becomes Korea's representative curry product". The Korea Herald. 25 June 2015. Archived from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
  61. ^ Sohn, JiAe (24 October 2014). "Ottogi Curry brings Indian cuisine to the table". Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
  62. ^ Lee, Jiyoung (2024). Real Korean Recipes. Seoul, Korea: Beeolive Books. p. 23. ISBN 979-11-987166-0-6.
  63. ^ Huskey, Brian (2022). Asia: The Ultimate Cookbook (Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, Vietnamese, Asian). Cider Mill Press. pp. 19, 398.
  64. ^ Bush, Austin (5 December 2012). "Burmese curry restaurants". Austin Bush Photography. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2024.
  65. ^ DeWitt, Dave (26 May 2014). Precious Cargo: How Foods From the Americas Changed The World. Catapult. p. 300. ISBN 978-1-61902-388-8.
  66. ^ "Thai cooking, food thai, Thai menu, pad thai recipe". The Nation. Thailand. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
  67. ^ "Stir Fried Prawns with Curry Powder and Eggs Recipe". Thaifoodmaster. 18 May 2009. Archived from the original on 9 March 2010.
  68. ^ Schmidt, Darlene (22 September 2024). "Thai Curry Types: The Difference Between Red, Yellow, and Green Curries". The Spruce Eats. Archived from the original on 1 October 2024. Retrieved 7 October 2024.
  69. ^ Raji, Mohd Nazri Abdul; Ab Karim, Shahrim; Ishak, Farah Adibah Che; Arshad, Mohd Mursyid (1 December 2017). "Past and present practices of the Malay food heritage and culture in Malaysia". Journal of Ethnic Foods. 4 (4): 221–231. doi:10.1016/j.jef.2017.11.001.
  70. ^ "Malaysian Curry: Authentic and Delicious". Mama Lam's. 14 January 2022. Archived from the original on 2 March 2024. Retrieved 7 October 2024.
  71. ^ "5 Rekomendasi Lontong Kari Enak di Bandung, Cocok Pisan buat Sarapan!" [5 Recommendations of Delicious Curry Lontong in Bandung, Great for Breakfast!]. idntimes.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  72. ^ "Kare Rajungan Khas Tuban yang Gurih dan 'Nendang'". genpi.id (in Indonesian). 21 September 2021. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  73. ^ Hikayat Amir Hamzah 1 (Menentang Jin di Bukit Qaf). PTS Fortuna. 2008. p. 10. ISBN 978-983-192-116-6. Archived from the original on 19 February 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  74. ^ Nguyen, Andrea (30 August 2024). "Excite Your Tastebuds with Cà Ri Gà, Vietnamese Chicken Curry". Simply Recipes. Archived from the original on 15 September 2024. Retrieved 7 October 2024.
  75. ^ "Pinoy Chicken Curry Recipe". Panlasang Pinoy. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
  76. ^ a b Seid, Shelley (19 October 2017). "Curry is the story of South Africa on a plate". The Sunday Times. Archived from the original on 27 January 2018. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
  77. ^ a b Govender-Ypma, Ishay (11 November 2017). "The Brutal History of South Africa's Most Famous Curry". Munchies. Archived from the original on 28 January 2018. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
  78. ^ Collingham 2006, p. 243.

Sources

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Curry&oldid=1254082744"